Putting Instructional Systems Design Models into Teaching Practices

A model in instructional design describes the process of creating something, not the product itself. Instructional design involves developing educational materials systematically, considering various educational contexts and utilising effective teaching strategies, technologies, and media (Gibbons, Boling & Smith, 2014; Branch & Kopcha, 2014).

Prescriptive and descriptive instructional design models are categorised into theoretical/conceptual, organisation, and planning-and-prognosis models (DeWitt, Alias & Siraj, 2015; Seels, 1997; Branch & Kopcha, 2014). Prescriptive models help designers plan and create instructional materials, while descriptive models provide insights into actual instructional practices, fostering theory development and reflective practice.

Aspect	Prescriptive ID Models	Descriptive ID Models
Focus	How to design instruction	What happens in instruction
Nature	Systematic and structured	Observational and analytical
Purpose	Guide instructional design processes	Describe and understand existing practices
Examples	ADDIE, Dick and Carey	Kemp Model, Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory

These models, known as Instructional Systems Design (ISD) models, represent a systematic approach to creating learning experiences that enhance skills and knowledge. They consider various instructional systems and interactions in five phases.

Newer constructivist instructional design models provide guiding principles for analysing, producing, and revising learning environments. Whether old or new, instructional design models must consider new theories on learning in various contexts (Branch & Kopcha, 2014); let's focus solely on the eight common ISD models and principles.

A. ISD Models

a. Dick and Carey's Model

Dick and Carey's model is a widely used macro-level model for structuring design tasks (İşman, Çağlar, Dabaj, & Ersözlü, 2005). It comprises nine iterative stages and is a procedural, step-by-step model for designing learning environments based on instructional goals. By analysing needs, required content, and skills, learners refine goals. The components' output serves as input for the next stage, allowing for revision. The systems approach identifies instructional goals at the beginning and end with a summative evaluation. It is also used for constructivist learning environments (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014).

b. Hannafin and Peck's Model

Hannafin and Peck's model is a comprehensive framework encompassing three key phases. The first phase involves conducting a thorough needs assessment, and the design phase consists of creating the instructional plan. Subsequently, the model proceeds to the development and implementation phase of instruction. Importantly, throughout these phases, continuous evaluation and revision are conducted to ensure the effectiveness of the learning design (İşman, Çağlar, Dabaj & Ersözlü, 2005). This model has demonstrated its effectiveness in creating well-structured learning environments.

c. ASSURE Model

The ASSURE model focuses on selecting and implementing media within learning activities. It assumes that instructional issues inherent in using media materials have been addressed. The ASSURE acronym represents the components illustrated in the figure, and the model's stages exhibit a linear, input-output nature, with decisions made in the first stage influencing decisions in subsequent stages. These stages include:

1. Describing learners' characteristics and competencies needed.

2. Specifying learning objectives.

3. Bridging learners and objectives by selecting or designing materials.

4. Planning how the materials will be used.

5. Providing activities for practice and reinforcement.

6. Specifying evaluation criteria for learner achievement and instructional materials.

d. Knirk and Gustafson's Design Model

Knirk and Gustafson's design model is a structured framework for problem-solving in education, consisting of three key stages: problem determination, design, and development. In the problem determination stage, educators analyse and identify the core issue. The design stage focuses on setting instructional objectives aligned with the problem, while the development stage involves creating and implementing strategies and resources. The model sometimes overlooks evaluation and continuous improvement, failing to assess interventions and enhance learning outcomes. Overall, the model provides a methodical approach to addressing educational challenges, emphasising tailored solutions while highlighting the importance of ongoing evaluation and refinement.

e. Morrison, Ross, Kalman and Kemp's Model

This model comprises four main components: learners, objectives, methods, and evaluation. Together with context and environment, these elements form an instructional design model comprising nine components: instructional problems, learner and context, task analysis, instructional objectives, content sequencing, instructional strategies, message design, instructional development, and evaluation instruments. The design process is non-linear, continuously involving planning, project management, support services, formative evaluation, revision, implementation, summative evaluation, and confirmatory evaluation.

f. Gerlach Ely's Model

Gerlach Ely's model is a comprehensive framework that guides novice higher education teachers in designing instruction. This model aids in detailing specific instructional objectives, selecting appropriate instructional strategies, organising instructional groups, allocating time for different components, choosing relevant instructional materials, determining performance evaluation tasks, and analysing feedback provided to enhance the teaching and learning process (Ismanet et al., 2005).

g. Rapid Prototyping Model

This model of the design process, initially used in software development, is complex and unpredictable. It involves studying feasibility and the current situation, continuously designing and testing prototypes, and considering learner needs, content, and context throughout. Involving intended users in prototyping is a key strength, making it well-suited to complex instructional situations that require flexibility. This model stands out for its extended user involvement, which is lacking in many other models.

h. Gagne and Briggs System Model

This comprehensive instructional design model takes a holistic approach by considering various factors and stages involved in the process. It utilises thorough analysis to establish clear goals, then designs features specifically tailored to achieve them. While the model may initially appear to follow a linear progression, it involves iterative design phases that require revisiting and refinement as new features or information emerge.

One of this model's key strengths is its ability to categorise lesson objectives by learning type. This allows instructional designers to create a curriculum that covers a wide range of knowledge areas. At the lesson level, the focus shifts towards optimising teacher-student interactions and structuring tasks within each learning activity to enhance engagement and learning outcomes.

A notable aspect of this model is its incorporation of nine instructional events that can be customised according to the desired learning outcomes. This flexibility enables educators to tailor their approach based on specific educational goals and student needs. Furthermore, the adaptability of this model for web-based instruction makes it particularly relevant in today's digital learning environment, where online education plays an increasingly significant role in delivering quality instruction to learners of all ages and backgrounds.

B. ADDIE Model

ADDIE is a comprehensive instructional design framework that can be used with various instructional design models (Branch & Kopcha, 2014). The acronym ADDIE stands for the different phases. In the ADDIE model, the analysis phase involves identifying the learners or audience (audience analysis) and determining the goal or desired outcome (goal analysis). During the design phase, the course content is outlined (subject matter analysis), instructional steps are planned, objectives are written (lesson planning-writing objectives), and the appropriate media or presentation format is selected (media selection).

Instruction development involves creating lesson plans, materials, media, and supporting documents to prepare a course for delivery. Implementation is the stage where instruction is delivered. Evaluation includes formative assessment during the ID steps and summative assessment upon completion. Instructional theories and models are essential in designing instructional materials or processes because, as Thompson (2001) suggests, they:

1. Accelerate the process by focusing the team and providing a foundation for project development.

2. Facilitate communication so team members can exchange expertise, intentions, schedules, etc.

3. ID models ensure team members know when and what to contribute or share.

4. Ensure comprehensive instructional design by including all interrelated and supportive elements of instruction.

C. ISD Differences and Components

ID is used in various contexts, leading to the development of different models. ID models are classroom, product, or system models. Instructors are increasingly aware of the importance of effective ID for teaching and training. Each model has distinct characteristics:

1. Dick and Carey's model

   • 9 iterative stages focusing on instructional goals

2. Hannafin and Peck's model

   • 3 phases, with evaluation and revision in each

3. ASSURE model

   • Emphasises learner engagement and needs analysis

4. Knirk and Gustafson's model

   • Focuses on solving instructional problems

5. Morrison, Ross, Kalman and Kemp's model

   • Integrates learners, objectives, methods, and evaluation

6. Gerlach Ely's model

   • Iterative process with performance evaluation

7. Rapid Prototyping model

   • Continuous testing and evaluation of prototypes

8. Gagne and Briggs' system model

   • Detailed analysis, implementation, and evaluation

9. ADDIE model

   • A guiding framework for ISD

Model	Key Features	Focus	Evaluation	Structure	User Involvement
Dick and Carey	Nine-step, iterative systems-based model with procedural design flow	Defining instructional goals, content development, and skill acquisition	Summative evaluation upon model completion	Linear sequence with iterative feedback and revision loops	Moderate involvement in planning and revision
Hannafin and Peck	Three-phase model: needs assessment, design, and implementation	Instructional planning and ongoing refinement	Continuous evaluation and refinement throughout the phases	Sequential phases with integrated evaluations	Moderate involvement during all stages
ASSURE	Structured model for media integration in instruction	Aligning media tools with learning objectives and learner characteristics	Assessment of learner achievement and material effectiveness	Linear input–output structure based on media use	Minimal learner or stakeholder involvement
Knirk and Gustafson	Three-stage model: problem identification, design, and development	Addressing educational problems through targeted instructional design	Limited or absent focus on evaluation and revision	Sequential stages focused on instructional issues	Low user input beyond early-stage analysis
Morrison, Ross, Kalman, Kemp	Flexible, non-linear model with nine interrelated components	Solving instructional problems through learner-centred analysis and design	Comprehensive evaluations: formative, summative, and confirmative	Dynamic and flexible; non-linear development approach	High involvement through iterative feedback and services
Gerlach Ely	Structured instructional planning framework for novice educators	Developing objectives, selecting strategies, and organising teaching elements	Performance analysis through feedback loops	Linear planning sequence tailored for practical use	Moderate focus on teacher-driven planning
Rapid Prototyping	Iterative design with continuous prototyping and user feedback	Designing flexible solutions through real-time user input and feasibility analysis	Ongoing formative evaluation during each prototyping cycle	Highly iterative and adaptive to user needs	Extensive involvement of learners and stakeholders
Gagné and Briggs	Comprehensive model integrating nine instructional events	Structuring lessons using categorised learning outcomes and adaptive activities	Iterative evaluation to enhance learning outcomes	Linear with iterative refinements based on instructional events	Moderate involvement with customisation flexibility

Although there may be many differences between the models discussed, all are ISD models. According to Branch and Kopcha (2014), there may be differences in terms and procedures, but all of them share the five phases of instructional design, which are as follows:

1. Analysis of the setting and the learners' needs;

2. Design of the materials for an effective, efficient, and relevant learner environment;

3. Development of materials;

4. Implementation of instruction; and

5. Evaluation of the implementation.

a. Analysis

The analysis phase entails scrutinising several elements with examples:

1. Prerequisite knowledge

   1. Students possess basic knowledge in science, mathematics, and computer skills.

   2. To avoid redundancy, utilise MS PowerPoint.

2. Entry behaviour

   1. Students aged 15-17 exhibit diverse levels of achievement.

   2. Employ graphics suitable for their age and accommodate varying levels of achievement.

3. Learning styles

   1. Predominantly visual and interpersonal.

   2. Incorporate support for these styles in instructional strategies.

4. Delivery devices

   1. Schools are equipped with OHPs, computers, and LCDs.

   2. Align content delivery with the specifications of school computers.

5. Cost

   1. A substantial investment is required for hardware, software, and expertise.

   2. Create a financial plan and pursue grants.

6. Time and duration

   1. Utilise a Gantt chart for effective time management.

7. Expertise

   1. The team comprises a project manager, an instructional designer, a graphic designer, an evaluator, and a software developer.

   2. Assemble a management team for the project.

8. Work culture

   1. The software is designed for student use in laboratories or at home and is appropriate for solo learning.

9. Content

   1. The software should conform to the Ministry of Education's curriculum, specifically the Chemistry Curriculum.

b. Design

The design phase involves addressing specific components, examining examples of outcomes and discussions, and making decisions.

1. Objectives

   1. Utilise information from the analysis phase to formulate objectives.

   2. Ensure objectives are structured in the ABCD format.

2. Test questions

   1. Perform an analysis of examination questions.

   2. Confirm that test items effectively measure the achievement of objectives.

   3. Decide on the type of questions (objective or subjective).

   4. Organise questions to align with the objectives they assess.

3. Selection of strategies

   1. Choose strategies based on insights gained from the analysis.

   2. Select a teaching strategy that aligns with the established objectives.

c. Development

The development phase involves addressing various components, including flowcharts, storyboards, prototypes, and software.

1. Flowchart

   1. All activities related to software implementation should be represented in the flowchart using specific symbols.

2. Creating the storyboard

   1. For software development, a storyboard should be created on paper or as a mock-up on a computer screen.

3. Development of prototypes

   1. Prototypes should be created for each part of the software, and each part should be evaluated and modified until the objectives are achieved.

4. Software production

   1. After prototyping, the software and manual will be produced and packaged on CD-ROMs.

d. Implementation

The fourth phase, the implementation phase, entails addressing the necessary software components, such as how they can be used and the decisions regarding their use of software for teaching and learning; for example:

1. Used by students for individualised learning

2. Individualised learning is available in the library and lab.

e. Evaluation

In the evaluation phase, we will examine various components and present examples of the outcomes achieved, followed by discussion and decision-making.

1. Formative evaluation:

   1. Conducted via interviews, observations, and input from experts

   2. Data is collected at each stage to improve the software

   3. Formative evaluation is conducted at each phase to save cost and time

2. Summative evaluation:

   1. Conducted via questionnaires and expert input

   2. This evaluation is done at the end of the instructional professional design.

   3. Modifications for future versions.

D. Putting ID Theories into Practice

Instructional design models describe how to create a product or learning environment (Gibbons, Boling & Smith, 2014). They are systematic, iterative methods that enhance skills and knowledge through the analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation phases. Applying the basics of ISD and the ADDIE model (analyse, design, develop, implement, and evaluate) is essential for designing teaching and learning materials.

Most instructors did not fully understand ID models and theories and were unsure about their design. Three types of ID practice among instructors and educators can be categorised:

1. Instruction without theory knowledge

2. Having theoretical knowledge but not applying it during instruction

3. Putting theory into practice effectively by understanding learning theory and students' needs

a. Dick and Carey's Model

Dick and Carey's model for instructional design starts with goal identification, ends with summative evaluation, and is used in constructivist learning environments (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014).

1. Identify instructional goals.

   1. The goal is established based on learner performance data and curriculum standards to address the identified need.

   2. Initially stated, the goal may be broad and subject to further refinement.

   3. The instructional goal is honed to align with organisational needs, feasibility, and clarity.

2. Conduct instructional analysis.

   1. Analyse the goal.

   2. Determine the learning domain.

   3. Perform task analysis.

   4. Identify subordinate skills.

   5. Ascertain entry skills.

3. Identify entry behaviour.

   1. Analyse learners.

   2. Analyse context.

   3. Define target learners.

      1. Target learners

      2. Context

4. Write performance objectives.

   1. Formulate the terminal objective

   2. Develop performance objectives.

5. Develop criterion-referenced tests.

   1. Test items are crafted based on the previously stated objectives.

   2. Observation checklists are utilised for psychomotor skills assessment.

   3. Verbal information, intellectual skills, and cognitive strategies are evaluated through various test items, including multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blank questions.

6. Developing instructional strategy.

   1. Instructional strategy

   2. Delivery system

   3. Clustering and sequencing of content

   4. Instructional components (Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction)

   5. Student groupings

7. Develop and select instructional materials.

   1. Use the instructional strategy.

   2. Determine components of the instructional package.

   3. Consider and develop instructional materials.

8. Develop and conduct formative assessments.

   1. Formative evaluation designs:

      1. Evaluation by subject matter experts

      2. One-to-one evaluation with learners

      3. Small group evaluation

      4. Field trial

9. Develop and conduct summative assessments.

   1. Summative assessment involves:

      1. Expert judgement on the suitability, clarity, and feasibility of instruction.

      2. Determination of whether learning outcomes were achieved.

The Dick and Carey model refines goals, determines learning domains, and analyses instruction. It identifies student skills and context, sets objectives, and designs test items.

1. The instructional strategy includes delivery, sequencing, components, and groupings.

2. An instructional package includes quizzes, videos, and checklists for self-evaluation.

3. Summative assessments test skills and strategies.

4. To transfer learning, discussions are given. Implementation tools include checklists and recipe lists for assessment.

5. Revision is based on evaluation and learner analysis.

6. Classroom activities involve hands-on learning, discussions, and scaffolded experiences.

b. ASSURE Model

The ASSURE model is suitable for developing instructional media and selecting media for learning activities, with a focus on the implementation phase. It includes a needs analysis phase to assess learners' needs and requires learners' participation in discussions, small-group activities, and formative assessments.

1. A: Analyse learners

2. S: State objectives

3. S: Select methods, media, and materials

4. U: Utilise media

5. R: Require learner participation

6. E: Evaluate and revise

The ASSURE model involves learner analysis and setting objectives, designing assessment rubrics, specifying learning conditions, selecting methods, media, and materials, using problem-based learning with inquiry, providing instructional materials like models and photos, employing a scientific approach, utilising worksheets, ensuring learner participation, requiring specified participation, evaluating objective achievement, and suggesting revisions for future development cycles.

c. Morrison, Ross, Kalman and Kemp's Model

The Morrison, Ross, Kalman and Kemp model consists of four main components for instructional planning: learners, objectives, methods, and evaluation. The process includes nine elements: instructional problems, learner and context, task analysis, instructional objectives, content sequencing, instructional strategies, message design, instructional development, and evaluation instruments.

1. Instructional problems

   1. Identifying issues to determine if instructions can address the problem involves needs assessment, goal analysis, and performance assessment.

2. Learner and context

   1. Analysing learner characteristics (gender, age, personal and social traits), the orienteering context (what the learner knows), instructional context (physical setting and training schedule), and transfer context (applying knowledge to new situations).

3. Task analysis

   1. Conducting topic analysis based on learning domains (facts, concepts, principles, procedures, interpersonal skills, attitudes), procedural analysis by steps, and using the critical incident method for process analysis and conflict resolution.

4. Instructional objectives

   1. Setting goals for cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains.

5. Content sequencing

   1. Organising instruction based on learner familiarity and difficulty level.

6. Instructional strategies

   1. Teaching cognitive procedures through demonstration, organisation, elaboration, and practice; and interpersonal skills through modelling, verbal and imaginal guidance, mental rehearsal, and overt practice.

7. Designing the message

   1. Implementing pre-instructional strategies such as pre-tests, behavioural objectives, advanced organisers, and overviews

   2. Incorporating pictures and graphics into instruction

8. Development of instructional material

   1. Creating instructional content considering objectives, learner analysis, and tangible examples.

9. Evaluation instruments

   1. Formative evaluation checklist

   2. Summative evaluation checklist

   3. Confirmative evaluation checklist

In Morrison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp's model, instructional problems and needs are identified. Goal analysis ranks and prioritises goals for manageable training. Learner and context analysis are crucial. Task analysis ensures goal achievement. Components can be changed and sequenced. Formative evaluation can occur during instruction. Content sequencing prioritises familiar topics first. Instructional strategies offer practice and problem-solving opportunities. Various media can be used to deliver instruction.

Evaluation is done at various stages using checklists. Planning, project management, support services, and evaluations are ongoing processes. Designing instruction systematically enhances the development of skills and knowledge. ID model ensures consistent and reliable material development. The analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation phases ensure a systematic process.

E. Conclusion

ISD models are essential for creating learning experiences and are typically divided into five phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Nine distinct instructional design models, each with unique features, streamline the design process, facilitate communication, and ensure quality. Instructional models can be classified into three categories: classroom, product, and system, with three forms of instructional design: vertical, circular, and horizontal. Learning environments and materials are based on instructional models.

The Dick and Carey Model has 9 stages: identify the goals, conduct analysis, identify entry behaviour, write objectives, develop the tests, develop strategies, select materials, and conduct assessments. The ASSURE model has 6 phases: analyse learners, state objectives, select methods/materials, utilise media, require participation, and evaluate/revise. The Morrison, Ross, Kalman & Kemp model has 4 components: learners, objectives, methods, and evaluation, with 9 elements: problems, context, analysis, sequencing, strategies, message design, instruction development, and evaluation instruments.

References

• Branch, R. M., & Kopcha, T. J. (2014). Instructional design models. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 77-87). Springer.

• DeWitt, D., Alias, N., & Siraj, S. (2015). The use of instructional design models for quality educational media. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 176, 369-378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.482

• Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2014). The systematic design of instruction (8th ed.). Pearson.

• Gibbons, A. S., Boling, E., & Smith, K. M. (2014). Instructional design models. In M. J. Bishop, J. Elen, T. Koschmann, & K. D. Raedeke (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 607-615). Springer.

• İşman, A., Çağlar, M., Dabaj, F., & Ersözlü, Z. N. (2005). The implementation of instructional design models in distance education programs. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 6(3), 1-13.

• Seels, B. (1997). Instructional systems design: The literature of the 70s and 80s. Educational Technology Publications.

• Thompson, M. (2001). Introduction to instructional design and the ADDIE model. National Training Laboratories.

Let's Recall...

1. What are the five phases of instructional systems design (ISD) models?

2. How does the Dick and Carey model approach the design of instructional materials?

3. Why is the Rapid Prototyping model suitable for complex instructional situations?

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