Various psychological learning theories deeply impact instructional design (ID). These encompass behaviourist theories, which focus on observable behaviours and the use of rewards and reinforcements; cognitive theories, which examine the internal mental processes involved in learning, such as memory, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Cognitive theories focus on understanding how people think and learn by examining internal mental processes. Constructivist theories, which emphasise the active role of learners in constructing their understanding and knowledge through experience and reflection. ID theories are critical in developing effective ID practices for creating meaningful and immersive educational experiences.
A. Behaviourist Learning Theories
Behaviourist theories focus on observable and measurable behaviours, emphasising the importance of external stimuli and responses. This theory is rooted in the work of several key psychologists.
a. Key Psychologists
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov developed the concept of classical conditioning, which involves learning through association.
His famous experiment with dogs demonstrated that a neutral stimulus (a bell) could elicit a conditioned response (salivation) when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) (Good & Brophy, 1990).
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
Edward Thorndike proposed the connectionism theory, emphasising the relationship between stimuli and responses (S-R).
His laws of effect, exercise, and readiness explain how behaviours are strengthened or weakened through practice and consequences:
Law of Effect
Responses followed by satisfaction are more likely to recur, while those followed by discomfort are less likely to recur.
Law of Exercise
Repetition strengthens S-R connections.
Law of Readiness
A person’s readiness to perform a task influences the strength of the S-R connection.
The principles of Thorndike's theory are as follows:
Learning requires practical exercise and a reward.
A series of responses can be combined.
A transfer of learning is caused by a situation experienced before.
Intelligence is several functional S-R connections made.
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
John B. Watson applied Pavlov's ideas to humans, demonstrating classical conditioning in a famous experiment with a child named Albert.
Watson believes humans are born with reflexes and emotions, such as love and anger.
Other types of behaviour are the product of S-R conditioning.
Albert developed a fear of white rats through association with loud noise, illustrating that emotional responses can be conditioned.
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning focuses on how consequences influence behaviour.
His experiments with the Skinner Box demonstrated that behaviours could be shaped by reinforcement and punishment:
b. Implications in Education
Behavioural objectives
Behavioural objectives state learning objectives in a specified form, which can be summarised in the mnemonic ABCD (audience, behaviour, condition and degree) (Mager, 1984).
This is important as learning was viewed as a behavioural change.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
There are six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy, ranging from Knowledge (the easiest) to Evaluation (the most difficult).
Knowledge
Observe and recall details.
Examples include listing, defining, showing, grouping, tabulating, stating, and naming.
Understanding
Grasp the information, translate it into a new context, and make comparisons and predictions.
Examples include simplifying, differentiating, comparing, discussing, and expanding.
Application
Utilise the given information, methods, and concepts in new situations.
Examples include showing, calculating, checking, and relating.
Analysis
Detect patterns, organise, and identify components.
Examples include explaining, connecting, dividing, and referring.
Synthesis
Take existing ideas to create new ones, generalise, and summarise.
Examples include integrating, rearranging, designing, formulating, and rewriting.
Evaluation
Assess ideas, judge, select options, and confirm evidence.
Examples include evaluating, deciding, testing, and supporting.
Gagne’s Learning Objectives Taxonomy
Gagne proposed his taxonomy of learning to classify learning outcomes for the cognitive, affective. and psychomotor domains in 1985.
This classification enabled teachers to identify the types and levels of skills that need to be taught.
Verbal information (declarative knowledge)
Verbal information is linked to the knowledge that requires students to memorise information.
Intellectual skill (procedural knowledge)
At a higher level compared to verbal information, it utilises cognitive processes in three levels:
understanding a concept (lowest)
use of rules (intermediate)
problem-solving (highest)
Cognitive strategy
The skill to control one's learning and thinking.
Attitude
Feelings or trust in oneself that motivates a person to perform a task.
Motor skill
Any activity involving one or all body parts in performing a task.
Mastery Learning
The formulas used in this method are pre-test, teach, test result, use procedure, teach and test until real learning is achieved (Morrison, 1931, in Saettler, 1990).
Mastery learning assumes that all students can master the materials provided.
Bloom expanded on Morrison's idea but believed mastery learning was only suitable for lower cognitive levels and not for teaching higher mental levels.
Industrial and Military Approach
In industrial and military training, behavioural objectives are defined to outline specific, observable, and measurable outcomes.
Robert Mager advocated for using behavioural objectives to visualise the intended learning.
Gagne and Briggs proposed a methodology for crafting these objectives.
Teaching Machine and Programmed Instruction
Skinner was famous for programmed instruction.
The framework for programmed instruction began when the design for individualised instruction was developed.
Individualised Learning
Individualised instruction, akin to programmed teaching and the teaching machine, emerged in 1900 and saw a resurgence in 1960.
This approach allows teaching to be tailored to the individual, emphasising mastery of the subject matter and the achievement of set objectives before moving to the next level.
B. Cognitive Learning Theory
Cognitive learning theory focuses on the internal mental processes involved in learning, such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving. It considers how information is received, processed, and stored in the mind.
a. Key Psychologist
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development in children's mental development outlines four stages:
Sensory-motor stage (0-2 years): Infants learn through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.
Pre-operational stage (2-7 years): Children develop memory and imagination, engage in symbolic play, and lack logical reasoning.
Concrete operational stage (7-12 years): Children develop logical thinking but struggle with abstract concepts.
Formal operational stage (12+ years): Adolescents develop abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.
Children's intellectual development undergoes the following phases:
Assimilation
The relationship between new learning and background knowledge and preconception
Involves association of new learning with background knowledge and pre-conception
Accommodation
The change in existing mental structure to develop a new structure
Involves changes in mental structures to incorporate new information
Assimilation-accommodation results in the formation of schemata.
Equilibrium
The balance between assimilation and accommodation
Involves deliberation between assimilation and accommodation
Disequilibrium
There is no balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Will occur if new information received contradicts information stored in the mental structure
b. Implications in Learning
Cognitive theory has led to a deeper understanding of how knowledge is structured and processed.
It emphasises the importance of internal mental processes and the role of feedback in learning.
Cognitive strategy that helps bridge the gap between what learners can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.
c. Main Concepts
Piaget's stages highlight the importance of developmental appropriateness in instructional design.
Key concepts in cognitive theory include:
Schema
Mental structures that help organise and interpret information.
Information Processing Model
Describes how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
Input enters the sensory register, is processed in short-term memory and then transferred to long-term memory for storage.
Sensory register
Receives input from sensory organs.
The information stays about one to four seconds before being deleted or changed to newer and latest information.
Most information does not reach short-term memory, but all information can be traced, and actions can be performed with it if necessary.
Short-term memory
Important sensory input is transferred from the sensory register to the STM.
Memory can be kept in the STM for 20 seconds.
They can be kept longer if they are repeated over and over again.
The STM can carry up to seven items.
They can be kept longer if bundled up or chunked together (chunking) into meaningful parts.
Long-term memory and storage
This stage holds items that are to be used for a longer time.
Information is sometimes forced into the LTM by rote learning and past learning.
Deep processing, such as connecting new information with the information already stored, is better for memory retention and access.
Meaningful Effect
Information meaningful or relatable to everyday life is easier to learn and remember.
Serial Order Effect
Unless the middle items are significantly different, items at the beginning or end of a list are easier to remember than those in the middle.
Practice Effect
Memory retention improves with practice, especially when the practice is distributed and connects information to different contexts.
Transfer Effect
The ability to apply learned knowledge to new situations is crucial.
This concept is emphasized across different learning theories:
Behaviorists see it as a generalisation or interference; cognitivists view it as restructuring knowledge or mental models.
Adult learning theory considers it sharing experiences.
Information Processing Effect
Deep information processing, which involves understanding meanings, aids memory retention more than surface processing.
Effect of Condition/Situation
Learning is easier in familiar contexts.
Mnemonic Effect
C. Constructivist Learning Theory
Constructivism is an epistemological view of learning that contrasts with cognitive theories. In cognitive theories, learning involves acquiring and storing information from the environment. In constructivist environments, learners impose organisation and meaning on the environment, constructing knowledge. Key principles of constructivism include:
Knowledge is individually constructed from experiences, leading to varied knowledge representations.
Knowledge constructions do not need to correspond to reality but must be viable when tested with peers and teachers.
Learning occurs when there is a disequilibrium between current knowledge and new information, a process known as accommodation.
Learning is a social process, with peer interactions playing a crucial role.
Constructivists believe that learning involves solving vague problems and that it occurs through active engagement and authentic experiences. Key assumptions include that knowledge is constructed through experience, learning translates the world into personal views, and it is an active process involving negotiation and collaboration. Evaluation should be integrated into authentic tasks.
a. Learning and Constructivism
Constructivism, stemming from construct, is an educational theory positing that children must actively form knowledge from their experiences.
It stresses knowledge construction through new experiences integrated with previous ones to reconcile differences and gain new insights.
This happens socially via peer interaction in various group sizes.
Constructivism also values metacognitive growth, prompting learners to plan, assess, and reflect on their learning approaches for enhancement.
Children develop informal notions about their world from birth, which they carry into the classroom; education aims to refine and deepen these notions.
Teachers must account for these initial informal concepts when presenting new material to foster proper development.
Notable constructivism figures include Piaget's schema development and cognitive learning, Bruner's discovery learning, Ausubel's concept of mental structure formation, and Gagne's learning outcomes domains.
b. Implications of Constructivism on Teaching
In constructivism, learning goals are high-level and complex, such as solving intricate problems.
To effectively engage learners, it is essential to create complex learning environments that facilitate knowledge construction and reflection through:
Engaging learners in authentic activities
Encouraging collaboration and exploration of multiple perspectives
Supporting learners in setting and regulating their goals
Promoting reflection on their learning processes and outcomes.
c. Needham’s Five-phase Processing Model
Needham identifies five phases in the learning process based on constructivist principles.
These phases and their purposes, along with examples of activities for each phase, are as follows:
Orientation
d. Constructivism and Instructional Design
Behaviourism and Cognitivism
Objective theories for analysng tasks.
Split tasks into manageable chunks.
State objectives and measure performance based on these objectives.
Constructivism
Focuses on creating an open learning experience.
Methods and outcomes vary for each individual, making measurement and evaluation harder.
Guidelines for constructivist learning:
Provide multiple reality representations:
Avoid oversimplified teaching.
Use multiple perspectives.
Provide authentic tasks:
Provide contextual explanations.
Focus on real scientific problems, discussions with experts, data collection, and exploration.
Establish reflective practice:
Use discrepant events for self-reflection.
Allow construction of knowledge based on content and context:
Teach topics suitable for students’ levels.
Support collaborative construction of knowledge:
Provide opportunities for sharing and collaboration via social media or other media.
Provide active learning environments:
Use simulations, discovery, games, and interactive learning software.
Employ problem-based, project-based, or constructivist strategies.
Enable student-centred and self-regulated learning:
Choose topics, generate inquiries, and plan their learning.
Encourage discovery:
Promote discovering new knowledge.
Provide activities that exceed students’ abilities:
Use computers and teacher assistance to solve problems and develop students' zone of proximal development.
Include intrinsic motivation:
Impose intrinsic motivation through the satisfaction of problem-solving.
e. Strengths and Weaknesses
Behaviourist theories:
Weakness: Ineffective without suitable stimuli for the learner.
Strength: Goal-driven, keeps the learner focused on a task.
Cognitive theories:
Weakness: Teaches a specific way of solving a task, limiting flexibility.
Strength: Ensures the learner can perform the task perfectly.
Constructivist theories:
Weaknesses: Arise if conformity is needed; individual views can cause problems.
Strength: Allows students to interpret various realities, effectively solving real-world problems in diverse forms (Schuman, 1996).
D. Educational Technology in Schools
The rapid advancement and technological development have significantly impacted education, transforming traditional learning methods and providing new opportunities for exploration and collaboration. Students can now virtually explore distant locations, collect real-time environmental data, and collaborate on projects using shared documents and wikis (Strickland, 2007). Technology changes how we live, learn, work, and interact daily.
a. Current Trends in the World
The NMC Horizon Report charts the five-year impact of innovative practices and technologies in K-12 education globally.
Key themes include the need for cultural transformation, opportunities for learners to create and experiment, interdisciplinary connections, continuous learning measurement, understanding digital environments, and the importance of good teachers despite technological advancements (Freeman et al., 2017).
Short-term trends driving technology in schools include coding as literacy, Science, Technology, Engineering, the Arts and Mathematics (STEAM) learning, and integrating arts with Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) subjects to boost innovation (Freeman et al., 2017).
b. Current Trends in Malaysia
Smart Schools
Introduced to produce knowledge workers for high-tech industries, Smart Schools leverage multimedia technology to provide self-accessed, self-paced, and self-directed courseware (Alias, DeWitt, & Siraj, 2013).
1BestariNet and FrogVLE
This project provides high-speed internet access and a virtual learning environment (VLE) for teaching, collaborative learning, and administration (Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan [BTP], 2018).
STEM
This is emphasized to ensure a sufficient workforce in science and technology, with the Malaysian Educational Blueprint 2013-2025 aiming to equip students with the necessary skills (KPM, 2016).
Computational Thinking
It was introduced in 2017 with Computer Science as a subject to encourage logical thinking and problem-solving (Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum [BPK], 2016).
c. The Use of Technologies in Classrooms
The primary question is not Why teach with technology? but Why are we teaching?
Teaching and learning focus on changing students' knowledge, aptitudes, abilities, and attitudes.
Technology should add value to this core mission.
Key considerations include whether technology increases efficiency, effectiveness, and reach.
Schools face barriers to integrating technology into their curriculum.
Identifying and addressing these barriers is important to create a successful, technology-rich learning environment.
The article Barriers to Technology Integration for Teaching and Learning explains these barriers.
The diagram below shows the stages of technology integration in schools.
c. Technology Integration Best Practices in Other Countries
South Korea
South Korea's Educational Information Sharing System (EDUNET) compiles educational materials nationwide, reducing costs and promoting efficiency (Bacsich, 2013).
The Cyber Home Learning System (CHLS) offers free online services and learning content.
At the same time, the Smart Education Initiative (SEI) uses Web 3.0 technologies for voluntary participation and resource sharing (Chun & Lee, 2015).
Australia
Australia's Learning Architecture supports personalized learning and links schools with communities, industry, and the VET and tertiary sectors (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership [AITSL], 2017).
The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals emphasizes building innovation linked with teaching and learning technologies (Moyle, 2010).
England
Virtual Learning Environments (VLE) personalize learning and provide access to digital resources in England.
The Digital Strategy for Schools (2015-2020) integrates ICT into teaching, learning, and assessment (Strategy Development Group, 2015).
Singapore
Singapore's ICT master plans focus on developing future-ready digital learners.
Initiatives like eduMALL and Singapore ONE@Schools provide high-speed internet access and a platform for accessing educational resources and services (Huat, n.d.).
To Conclude...
Consider the specific learning context for the appropriate learning theory in instructional design. The systems approach includes behaviourist and constructivist principles. Behaviourist strategies are best for mastering content and low-level processing, cognitive strategies for problem-solving and high-level processing tasks, and constructivist strategies for ill-defined domains and tasks requiring higher-order thinking. Understanding the nature of the learning task is crucial for determining the most effective instructional approach.
Educational technology continues to evolve, offering new opportunities for enhancing learning experiences. Countries like South Korea, Australia, England, and Singapore provide valuable examples of successful technology integration in education. Malaysia's initiatives, such as Smart Schools, 1BestariNet, STEM education, and computational thinking, aim to prepare students for the demands of a technology-rich society.
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Let's Recall...
What are the implications of Pavlov's classical conditioning theory in educational settings, as mentioned in Good & Brophy (1990)?
How does Bloom’s Taxonomy classify different levels of learning objectives, and what are examples of tasks at each level according to Mager (1984)?
According to Freeman et al. (2017), what global trends drive technology integration in K-12 education?
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