Discovering the Effective Instructional Components and Strategies
- Boon Yih Mah
- Jun 25, 2024
- 15 min read
The instructional designer will develop teaching strategies to engage learners (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014) through activities such as group discussions, role-play, projects, and problem-solving tasks. These micro strategies are part of a larger macro strategy that includes setting objectives, motivating learners, presenting content, and engaging them. Various instructional strategies based on learning theories will be explored, emphasising creative and critical thinking skills for 21st-century learners.
A. Definition and Development of Instructional Strategies
Teaching strategies facilitate learning by identifying and utilising a range of methods to help learners grasp the intended content (Armstrong, 2012). Effective strategies will help to achieve the learning objectives. A teaching strategy is a method to enhance learning performance. It covers selecting delivery systems, sequencing content, describing learning components, determining student groupings, structuring lessons, and selecting instructional media. Instructional strategies enable learning and improve performance.
Initial instructional strategies were influenced by behaviourist theories and were later improved by incorporating cognitive aspects into the design process. Constructivist elements are now applied to enhance cognitive aspects. Spector (2012) suggests choosing the instructional theory based on what needs to be learnt first, such as factual knowledge, procedural skills, cognitive skills, intellectual skills, or attitudes.
Expository techniques can be used for drilling and practice, lectures, and providing foundational knowledge. Inquisitory techniques promote understanding through exploratory instruction, interactive simulation, and Socratic questioning. Dick, Carey, and Carey (2014) define a constructivist learning environment as one in which learners in collaborative groups consult resources to solve problems. Indirect instruction models expose learners to inquisitory learning techniques, educational software, and technology integration.
B. Types of Instructional Strategies
a. Direct Instruction (DI)
Direct Instruction (DI) is a widely used teaching strategy in behaviourist education, developed by Siegfried Engelmann in the 1960s. It was designed to aid disadvantaged children, a collaboration between Engelmann and Carl Bereiter. DI excels in academic teaching, emphasising cognitive learning, but may fall short in psychomotor or affective areas.
DI's main goal is optimising learning time by swiftly delivering content and engaging students to foster academic success. Nonetheless, the rapid pace can be challenging for students who struggle to follow. DI involves teachers presenting new material, overseeing structured practice to assess understanding, and conducting guided practice to solidify learning.
Pre-instructional Phase
The pre-instructional phase of DI involves orienting remarks, capturing students' interest, linking to prior lessons, defining goals, giving clear instructions, and summarising the lesson's content (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000).
Presentation Phase
Effective instruction begins with clearly presenting the concept or skill, which is most beneficial when delivered in manageable steps, supplemented with numerous examples, and free from distractions.
Skills should be demonstrated, and challenging points revisited for clarity.
Visual aids can also enhance comprehension.
A discussion phase allows the teacher to assess students' understanding and the likelihood of achieving the learning objectives.
Competent teachers employ a range of questioning techniques, with a focus on convergent questions.
As students respond, they receive feedback that informs them of their grasp of the material and any mistakes, as noted by Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2000).
Corrective feedback directs students towards the desired learning outcomes and, when paired with praise, reinforces the learning process.
Practice Phase
Practice is crucial in DI, with the aim of mastery and error-free skill performance.
Teachers offer varying levels of support, from highly structured to independent, to foster student autonomy.
Optimal practice duration is key.
Initial high accuracy levels are closely monitored and vital for effective practice.
Distributed and periodic practice with well-timed intervals promotes successful learning outcomes.
Koslov et al. (1999) identify typical steps of a lesson, aligning them with phases of DI by Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2000):
Attention and focus: Short wake-up.
Orientation or preparation: The teacher presents the goal and how it builds on prior work.
Model: The teacher demonstrates concepts, strategies, and operations through repetition and variation.
Lead: The teacher organises guided practice, first collectively and then individually.
Test: Students practice individually.
Feedback: Students are corrected and rewarded positively.
Error correction: Persistent errors are identified and addressed.
Additional material: Learners engage with different materials by applying common strategies.
Problem-solving and strategy discrimination skills: to be introduced in future lessons.
Behaviourist theories focus on reinforcement and mastery learning, ensuring small concepts are learned satisfactorily with feedback. DI is used for programmed instruction to achieve learning outcomes, providing additional practice and feedback on interactive multimedia courseware.
b. Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning aims to enhance learning and social skills through group activities, focusing on group rewards, individual accountability, and opportunities for success (Slavin, 1995). It is based on social learning theories and emphasises social interaction in academic settings. Unlike traditional teacher-student questioning, learners cooperate, argue, and interact to learn. Structured planning is essential for successful implementation of cooperative learning.
Morrison et al. (2011) outline two main forms of cooperative learning: helping each other master materials and completing projects such as reports, presentations, experiments, or artwork. Activities like think-pair-share, jigsaw, numbered heads together, and group investigation exemplify cooperative learning methods. Maintaining ideal group sizes (three to five students) and heterogeneity is vital for effective learning.
Activities should be well planned, with specific tasks for each learner, to promote communication and interpersonal skills. Monitoring, assistance, and support are crucial throughout the process. However, collaborative learning involves working together towards a shared goal, even if tasks are not equally distributed among group members.
c. Learning Styles
An alternative educational approach links information processing to personality development, acknowledging that individuals uniquely interact with their environment. Thus, teaching methods should adapt to each learner's environmental response. Learners progress and respond to stimuli at different rates, necessitating adjustments in teaching strategies to match their developmental stages.
Some advocates for learning styles believe that educational designs, particularly in digital environments, should accommodate various learning approaches. However, Felder suggests that various teaching methods within the classroom setting are sufficient. The Felder-Silverman learning styles model proposes five dimensions, leading to the identification of the following learning styles (Felder, 1996, 1993):
The primary type of information perceived by the student:
Sensing learners (practical, fact and procedure-oriented)
Intuitive learners (conceptual, theory and meaning-oriented)
The most efficient sensory modality for perceiving information:
Visual learners (prefer non-linear inputs like images, diagrams, flowcharts)
Verbal learners (prefer written (linear inputs) and spoken explanations)
The student's preferred style of information organisation:
Inductive learners (from specific details to general concepts)
Deductive learners (from general ideas to specific examples)
The student's preferred information processing method:
Active learners (learning through action and collaboration)
Reflective learners (learning through reflection and independent work)
The student's approach to understanding:
Sequential learners (learn in linear steps)
Global learners (learn in large jumps, holistically)
d. Indirect Instruction
Indirect instruction is a student-centred teaching approach that involves observation, investigation, inference drawing, and hypothesis formation. Laurillard's Conversational Framework is a constructivist model emphasising discovery learning principles through guided discovery, communication, interaction, and reflection.
This framework comprises four key components: teacher concepts, constructed learning environment, student concepts, and student-specific actions. It promotes forms of communication such as discussion, adaptation, interaction, and reflection to bridge the gap between teacher and learner perspectives. Pedagogy in instruction should incorporate the four forms of communication to encourage flow within the framework. Technology tools like discussion forums and wikis facilitate collaborative learning within this framework in online and blended environments.
e. Problem-based Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) involves small groups of students working on contextual situations, defining problems, identifying necessary skills and resources, and providing solutions (Duch, Groh & Allen, 2001). PBL with ill-structured problems simulates real-world experiences, with instructors guiding students to achieve the learning objectives.
Savery and Duffy's (1994) PBL model follows a constructivist approach, facilitating the resolution of cognitive conflict and the reorganisation of knowledge. In PBL, teachers become facilitators, and learners take on self-directed, self-regulated learning responsibilities. The design of the problem task shapes the inquiry process in PBL. Facilitators of PBL should:
Identify or design relevant ill-structured problems/tasks.
Present problems to learners.
Guide learners to collaboratively generate ideas, gather information and propose solutions.
Repeat steps as new information emerges.
C. Thinking Skills
René Descartes' famous quote, "I think, therefore I am," highlights the importance of thinking. De Bono distinguishes thinking skills from intelligence, comparing intelligence to a car's horsepower and thinking to driving skills. Alvinoo's 1990 "Glossary of Thinking-Skills Terms" offers definitions commonly used by theorists and program developers.
Bloom's Taxonomy
Benjamin Bloom's educational framework categorises thinking skills from basic to advanced, with the latter being higher-order thinking skills.
Cognition
Mental operations involved in thinking, including biological and neurological processes enabling thought.
Creative Thinking
Unique approach marked by fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.
Critical Thinking
Evaluation involves reasoning, considering alternatives, understanding situations, and revising views based on evidence, which is synonymous with logical and analytical thinking.
Infusion
Integration of thinking skills into the standard curriculum.
Metacognition
The self-monitoring process represents the highest level of mental functioning.
Thinking Skills
A collection of fundamental and complex skills controlling mental activities.
Transfer
Capable of applying independently taught thinking skills across various subjects.
In the 21st century, the amount of knowledge is increasing rapidly, making it essential for individuals to develop thinking skills. Today's learners no longer need to memorise all information; they should focus on creating new knowledge and being critical consumers of information. The National Education Blueprint emphasises the importance of equipping students with both content knowledge and higher-order thinking skills.
Students should cultivate a love of inquiry and lifelong learning, connecting pieces of knowledge to create new insights. Developing cognitive skills such as critical thinking, reasoning, creativity, and innovation is crucial to producing skilled Malaysian citizens aligned with the Vision 2020 goals.
a. Categories
In education, thinking skills encompass (Kizlik, 2018):
Thinking: creating structured connections between information
Metacognition: awareness and control of one's thinking
Critical Thinking: reflective, objective, and logical thinking
Creative Thinking: forming new ideas or solutions
Kizlik (2008) outlined various categories of thinking skills according to their role in instruction. These categories of thinking skills encompass:
Activating prior knowledge
Analysing skills
Attention
Attitudes
Classifying
Commitment
Comparing
Composing
Comprehending
Concept formation
Conditional information
Core thinking skills
Creative thinking
Critical thinking
Curriculum
Decision making
Declarative information
Defining problems
Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) involve applying knowledge, skills, and values to reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, innovation, and creativity. Critical and creative thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making are key thinking skills discussed.
b. Critical and Creative Thinking
The Curriculum Development Centre of Malaysia (PPK, 2008) highlighted the importance of critical thinking skills for assessing and analysing data effectively. Analysing involves breaking down information, comparing, contrasting, classifying, identifying facts and opinions, and making predictions. Creative thinking skills involve generating diverse and innovative ideas, including inventions and innovations. PPK proposed a model for developing both critical and creative thinking skills.
c. Problem Solving
In the early 1900s, problem-solving was seen as a mechanical, systematic set of skills. Over time, it evolved to include higher-order cognitive skills. Today, problem-solving is a complex process involving cognitive, behavioural, and attitudinal components. Mayer (1983) defined problem-solving as a multi-step process based on past experiences. Problem-solving is cognitive, inferred from behaviour, leads to a solution, and manipulates previous knowledge (Funkhouser and Dennis, 1992). This diagram depicts a commonly used problem-solving model (Foshay and Kirkley, 2003).
d. Decision Making
According to the Oxford Dictionary (2004), a decision is a choice or judgement made after considering the best course of action, while decision-making is the process of making important choices, especially in groups or organisations. Conditions for decision-making include multiple consequences, added value, and varied effectiveness of actions. To make a good decision, clarify the problem, consider alternatives, assess factors, and use decision-making frameworks. The common decision-making process involves five stages.
D. Thinking Tools
Thinking tools help learners organise their thinking for effective learning. There are three types: mind map, graphic organiser, and Socratic questioning.
a. Mind Map
A mind map is a diagram focusing on images to illustrate connections between different pieces of information. It serves as a tool for generating, visualising, structuring, and categorising ideas, aiding in studying, organisation, problem-solving, decision-making, and writing.
According to Buzan (2002), mind maps are commonly used by educators, engineers, psychologists, and the general public for learning, brainstorming, memory enhancement, visual thinking, and problem-solving. Some of the earliest mind maps were credited to Porphyry of Tyros and Ramon Llull, but Tony Buzan popularised their use.
Buzan (2002) outlines the benefits of mind maps, including providing an overview of a subject, aiding planning and decision-making, consolidating data, fostering creative problem-solving, and being visually engaging and memorable. Users can enhance creativity, save time, improve problem-solving, concentration, organisation, clarity, memory retention, study efficiency, and exam performance.
Mind maps facilitate holistic understanding, planning, communication, sustainability, and paper conservation. Buzan (2002) identifies four key elements for creating a mind map and recommends specific foundational structures for effective mind mapping, including starting with a central image, using colours, images, symbols, and keywords, and maintaining a clear and organised layout.
b. Graphic Organiser
Graphic tools and organisers help students organise, present, clarify, process, and prioritise information. Visual organisation reveals patterns and relationships, aiding in understanding concepts by describing and remembering relationships between ideas (LTAG, 2006). Graphic organisers motivate, increase recall, assist understanding, create interest, combat boredom, and organise thoughts.
According to Gotoscience.com (2008), a graphic organiser is a visual representation of knowledge. It is also a semantic map, a structured overview, a concept map, a semantic organiser, a story map, scaffolding, a way to structure information, which facilitates various learning activities, promotes active learning, improves social interaction, serves as a framework for learning, and accesses students' previous experience and knowledge.
Guidelines from Gotoscience.com (2008) to help students create graphic organisers:
Discuss what graphic organisers are and how to use them.
Show examples and non-examples.
Use completed organisers to teach lessons.
Involve students in filling in the organisers.
Provide partially completed organisers for group work.
Give blank organisers for individual or group work.
Allow students to create their organisers.
Have students present their organisers to the class.
Graphic organisers, such as stars, trees, Venn diagrams, and flowcharts, can depict a student's existing knowledge. Transforming information into a visual map can improve comprehension. Understanding the functions of each type is vital to identifying their purpose and the skills they help develop. While teachers often employ verbal organisers to convey information textually, the Ministry of Education's i-Think program utilises specialised mind maps to foster advanced cognitive skills.
c. Socratic Questioning
Effective questioning is essential in adult education and a fundamental aspect of teaching in the medical field; the Socratic method fosters critical thinking. By posing the appropriate questions, learners are prompted to reflect, evaluate their comprehension, and form judgments. Asking the right questions is crucial for deepening one's understanding and enhancing critical thinking skills. There are six types of Socratic questions.
E. Learning Outcomes
Stating learning outcomes before implementing a lesson is crucial for clearly achieving the required competencies. Good learning outcomes lead to better-quality instruction by defining the scope of the lesson, planning strategies, resources, and activities, and guiding assessment based on the intended outcomes. Teachers must clearly define learning outcomes for each lesson to ensure effective learning and instruction. Let's explore the importance of learning outcomes, their definitions, characteristics, different names, functions, and domains, and ways to develop effective outcomes based on real classroom situations.
a. Definitions and Characteristics
Learning outcomes are the intended changes in learners' abilities resulting from instruction. Below are some of their definitions:
Popham et al. (1969): Intended change brought about in a learner.
Goodlad, in Popham et al. (1969): What students should be able to do after instruction.
Bloom (1956): Explicit ways students are expected to change due to education.
Mager (1962): What students should achieve by the end of learning.
Mager (1975): Description of desired learner performance.
Gallagher and Smith (1989): Specific statements of post-instruction abilities.
Hartel & Foegeding (2004): Detailed statements of measurable student abilities.
Neary (2002): Selecting appropriate outcomes to achieve competencies.
In educational psychology, learning is defined as a "change in behaviour" that a student demonstrates as an outcome. Learning outcomes are explicitly expressed and commonly used with learning objectives. While some sources use these terms interchangeably, others differentiate them.
Objectives relate to course and program goals, while outcomes measure learning. Learning outcomes at the University of Toronto focus on student knowledge and abilities at course completion. Instructional design models employ various objective types, such as terminal, performance, and behavioural objectives. These terms are sometimes used interchangeably with learning outcomes.
b. Purposes and Functions
Learning outcomes clarify expected objectives for learners, instructors, and administrators, influencing course design. The Eberly Centre at Carnegie Mellon University (2016) highlights five key functions of learning outcomes:
Identifying required knowledge
Practising appropriate skills
Assessing independent work requirements
Transferring learning across contexts
Developing metacognitive skills
Clear outcomes empower students to understand expectations, practice skills, assess workload, foster creativity, and enhance metacognition. Experts stress the importance of aligning outcomes with instructional goals to improve self-monitoring and learning gains.
Learning outcomes at Florida State University and the University of Toronto serve various functions, guiding instruction, evaluation, self-assessment, and communication. Students' outcomes focus on applying knowledge, integrating skills, fostering engagement, and understanding assessments. Instructors benefit from reflecting on practical applications, determining evaluation methods, and evaluating course success.
c. Elements
A learning outcome is a statement that describes a competency or performance capability that the learner is expected to acquire (Arreola, 1998). It specifies precisely what the student can do in measurable terms (Hartel & Foegeding, 2004).
A learning outcome typically includes a verb indicating the action the student should be able to perform, the conditions under which mastery should be demonstrated, and measurable criteria for assessing the extent of achievement. It should also identify the learners.
Learning outcomes rely on four essential elements: audience, behaviour, condition, and degree/criterion (ABCD). These elements ensure clear and effective writing of learning objectives. For instance:
Audience: Specify the target learner group.
Behaviour: Detail competency using observable performance verbs to make statements clear.
Condition: Outline performance evaluation conditions, including available tools or restrictions.
Degree/Criterion: Clarify the standard of performance adequacy with specific criteria.
d. Three Domains
Learning outcomes can be categorised into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (Gagne, 1985). When preparing learning outcomes, it is essential to conduct an instructional analysis to identify the necessary skills and knowledge to be included in instruction (Dick et al., 2015). In systematic instructional design, the focus is on analysing the tasks needed to achieve the instructional outcomes rather than just determining the topic (Dick et al., 2015). This analysis involves identifying the learning domain (cognitive, psychomotor, or affective) and selecting the appropriate instructional level for that domain.
Bloom's taxonomy of learning and other relevant authors' work are utilised for this purpose.
Cognitive Domain
Bloom's taxonomy cognitive domain comprises six learning levels.
This domain emphasises intellectual development and knowledge enhancement by improving students' thinking abilities.
Let's delve into each of the six learning levels in the cognitive domain:
Knowledge is the foundational level of cognitive learning, involving data and information recall, including defining, listing, stating, and identifying.
Comprehension is the next level, focusing on understanding and interpreting instructions and problems, including explaining and summarising.
Application involves applying learned concepts to new situations, including calculation, manipulation, and operation.
Analysis requires differentiating between materials and concepts to understand their relationships, including comparison, categorisation, and analysis.
Synthesis involves integrating diverse elements to create new structures or patterns, including the creation, design, and development.
Evaluation is the highest level, requiring judgment based on rational criteria, including comparison, explanation, and justification.
Affective Domain
The affective domain in Bloom's Taxonomy focuses on shaping students' attitudes through feelings and emotions.
This domain consists of five levels.
Let's explore each of the five levels in the affective domain:
Receiving is about being aware and accepting new experiences, including asking, listening, and acknowledging.
Responding involves actively participating and reacting to phenomena, including answering, assisting, and presenting.
Valuing is when students attach worth to objects or behaviours, including appreciation, respect, and sharing.
Organising involves prioritising values to develop a personal value system, including the formulation and comparison of values.
Internalising values means adopting a belief system that controls behaviour, including acting, discriminating, and performing.
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain focuses on skills development related to physical movement and coordination.
It includes tasks such as operating technology and social activities, such as dancing (Clark, 2015).
This domain comprises five levels.
Imitation involves observing and replicating actions, including following and mimicking.
Manipulation is about reproducing actions from memory or instructions, including executing and implementing.
Precision is the ability to execute a skill accurately, including both mastering and demonstrating it.
Articulation involves coordinating actions to achieve internal consistency, including adaptation and combination.
Naturalisation is about mastering skills to the point of unconscious competence, including creating and managing.
In instructional design, Gagné (1985) categorises learning into five types: intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and verbal information in the cognitive domain; motor skills in the psychomotor domain; and attitudes in the affective domain. Understanding these domains helps instructors plan tasks, resources, and media to achieve desired learning outcomes and communicate student expectations.
F. To Conclude...
Teaching strategies can be behaviourist or constructivist. Direct instruction is behaviourist, while cooperative learning is social learning. Examples of constructivist strategies include Laurillard's conversational framework and problem-based learning. Learning styles combine information processing and social learning theories.
This topic covers definitions of thinking skills, significance, classifications, and three key skills: critical and creative thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making. Decision-making involves five phases: definition, analysis, options, selection, and implementation. The topic discusses three thinking tools: mind maps, graphic organisers, and Socratic questioning.
Learning outcomes are essential for enhancing critical and creative thinking skills. They guide educators and learners, streamline teaching methods, and include the ABCD elements: audience, behaviour, conditions, and degree/criterion. Learning covers cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
References
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Let's Recall...
What are the key components of a teaching strategy as defined in the text?
How does direct instruction (DI) differ from cooperative learning in terms of educational theories and implementation?
Why is it important to state learning outcomes before implementing a lesson?
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